Environment:
Native Americans
Because the region’s climate offered a long growing season and generally plentiful rainfall, southern Indians developed a complex system of agriculture based primarily on three crops: corn, beans, and squash. To clear farmland, the natives used fire and stone axes to remove smaller brush and timber. They then stripped the bark (a process known as girdling) from larger trees so that they sprouted no leaves and eventually died. Native farmers (primarily women) then planted corn, beans, and squash together in hills beneath the dead and dying trees. By all accounts, the three crops, known in some cultures as “the three sisters,” usually did well under such conditions. Beans helped replace nitrogen taken from the soil by corn; cornstalks provided “poles” for the beans to climb; and broad-leaved squash plants helped cut down on weed growth and erosion.
Preparing new fields was hard work and rather than continually clearing new tracts in a “slash and burn” pattern, Indians probably used each plot as long as possible, even as yields declined. Old fields then had to lie fallow until they recovered some fertility and could be planted again. Hurricanes, thunderstorms, summer droughts, or prolonged spring rains could quickly lay waste to a season’s work in the fields. In addition, the natives had to store seeds, manage harvests, and distribute surplus crops, all of which required complex social and political organization. And, as several southeastern cultures seem to have discovered, a diet too rich in corn led to nutritional deficiencies and poor health. Thus, agriculture had to be blended proper proportion with hunting, fishing, and gathering wild foods in order to ensure survival.
European Settlers
For the most part, planters who raised cash crops engaged in monoculture, the practice of planting only a single crop per field. Tobacco, rice, and indigo—all of which are extremely demanding of soils—quickly exhausted colonial plots. Without the tangle of food plants typical of Indian gardens, English fields were also more subject to erosion and attracted insect pests such as grasshoppers, tobacco flea beetles, and rice worms. To colonists, monoculture appeared more “civilized,” but it was ecologically less sophisticated than the Indian system and therefore more subject to a greater variety of problems.
English colonists eventually found ways to turn trees into commodities, too. Lumber from live oaks became important to the shipbuilding industry. Barrel staves made from white oak helped sustain the international trade in molasses and rum. Bald cypress and Atlantic white cedar became the preferred woods for shingles and clapboard. By far, however, English people derived their greatest woodland profits from the South’s vast longleaf pine forest. Lumber from the trees could be used in ship construction and pinesap (known as resin) could be collected by cutting large rectangular notches or “boxes” into longleaf pines. The resin was then distilled into turpentine, tar, and pitch, products all used in the shipping industry and collectively known as naval stores. North Carolina, which—unlike South Carolina and Virginia—never developed a single-crop economy, led the southern colonies in the production of naval stores.
Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1700′s, and spread to the rest of the world, beginning with the United States. The use of machinery and factories led to mass production, which in turn led to the development of numerous environmental hazards. The effects on the environment would only be seen clearly years later.
The use of factories and mass production has led to a depletion of certain natural resources, leaving the environment permanently damaged. One example of this depletion is deforestation, which is the clearing of forest trees for use in production. When the trees are cleared, the wildlife in the forest also becomes uprooted.
The lack of trees is only compounded by the problem of carbon emissions. Whereas forests would help emit oxygen and refresh the levels of healthy gases in the air, factories are emitting poisonous emissions and eliminating the source of oxygen. The pollution that has resulted from factories involves not only airborne emissions but land and water pollution as well. The primary issue resulting from pollution and carbon emissions is that of global warming. As the temperature rises, the glaciers are melting and oceans are rising. More animal species are becoming endangered or extinct as a result of global warming.
The Green Presidents
Theodore Roosevelt- Theodore Roosevelt consistently lobbied Congress for wilderness protection, used the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 to set aside 150 million acres of timberland as public domains, and oversaw creation of the U.S. Forest Service. Roosevelt also created 50 wildlife refuges and five national parks
Jimmy Carter- President Jimmy Carter created the Department of Energy in 1977, with a key goal being the establishment of a national energy policy that promoted clean and alternative fuels. Carter famously installed solar panels on the White House roof and set the mansion's thermostats at 68 degrees to save energy.
Thomas Jefferson- Jefferson believed in respecting and working with nature, and envisioned a society of small farmers living in harmony with the environment.
Bill Clinton- He used executive orders to create 17 new national monuments, and expand four more, preserving more than 4.6 million acres, more than any other administration. Clinton also increased protection for wetlands and old-growth forests and finalized a sweeping rule that banned road building on nearly 60 million acres of wilderness in national forests. Clinton did secure more than $3 billion -- a 50% increase in annual funding -- to research and develop clean energy technologies. He also strengthened the Drinking Water Act, advanced cleanup of Superfund sites, and bolstered the EPA's ability to go after polluters.
Richard Nixon-Nixon signed the bills that established the Environmental Protection Agency and the landmark Clean Air Act. Going further, in 1972 Nixon signed the Coastal Zone Management Act; the Ocean Dumping Act; the Marine Mammal Protection Act; the Federal Insecticide, Fungide, Rodenticide Act; and the Toxic Substances Control Act. Nixon's term also saw passage of the Endangered Species Act in 1973 and the Safe Drinking Water Act in 1974
Franklin D Roosevelt- FDR created the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). Part of his New Deal, more than 2.5 million Americans planted millions of trees, opened summer camps, improved parks and trails, battled soil erosion and safeguarded other infrastructure and the environment. FDR's terms also saw creation of the Soil Conservation Service and the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act. Soil began to be viewed as an invaluable, and largely non-renewable, resource, and measures were taken to promote long-term productivity and soil health.
Abraham Lincoln-Lincoln established California's spectacular Yosemite Valley and its Mariposa Grove of giant sequoias as a public trust, marking the first time land was set aside specifically for public enjoyment. In 1862 Lincoln established the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). In 1863 he authorized the establishment of the National Academy of Sciences, which would go on to lead the world in promoting and fostering innovation.
Lyndon B. Johnson-In 1964 the president signed the Wilderness Act, which was written by the Wilderness Society, and which protected more than 9 million acres of federal land. The Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964 provided matching grants for large-scale rail projects.
Woodrow Wilson- Wilson oversaw creation of the National Park Service in 1916, which has long been considered one of the great treasures of the nation. He also spearheaded the Smith-Lever Act of 1914, which established cooperative extension services through the land-grant universities to disseminate information on agriculture and other topics
John F Kennedy - John F. Kennedy was reportedly influenced by Rachel Carson's groundbreaking book Silent Spring. As a result the president established a committee to investigate the impacts of pesticides on health and the environment.
John Muir and Rachael CarlsonJohn Muir (1838-1914) was America's most famous and influential naturalist and conservationist. He is one of California's most important historical personalities. He has been called "The Father of our National Parks," "Wilderness Prophet," and "Citizen of the Universe." He once described himself more humorously, and perhaps most accurately, as, a "poetico-trampo-geologist-botanist and ornithologist-naturalist etc. etc. !!!!" Legendary librarian and author Lawrence Clark Powell (1906-2001), (anticipating an event that was not to occur until 2006), said of him: "If I were to choose a single Californian to occupy the Hall of Fame, it would be this tenacious Scot who became a Californian during the final forty-six years of his life." More recently, famed documentary film maker Ken Burns said, "As we got to know him... he [John Muir] ascended to the pantheon of the highest individuals in our country; I'm talking about the level of Abraham Lincoln, and Martin Luther King, and Thomas Jefferson, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Jackie Robinson -- people who have had a transformational effect on who we are."
As a wilderness explorer, he is renowned for his exciting adventures in California's Sierra Nevada, among Alaska's glaciers, and world wide travels in search of nature's beauty. As a writer, he taught the people of his time and ours the importance of experiencing and protecting our natural heritage. His writings contributed greatly to the creation of Yosemite, Sequoia, Mount Rainier, Petrified Forest, and Grand Canyon National Parks. Dozens of places are named after John Muir, including the Muir Woods National Monument, the John Muir Trail, Muir College (UCSD), and many schools.
His words and deeds helped inspire President Theodore Roosevelt's innovative conservation programs, including establishing the first National Monuments by Presidential Proclamation, and Yosemite National Park by congressional action. In 1892, John Muir and other supporters formed the Sierra Club "to make the mountains glad." John Muir was the Club's first president, an office he held until his death in 1914. Muir's Sierra Club has gone on to help establish a series of new National Parks and a National Wilderness Preservation System.
Muir's last battle to save the second Yosemite, Hetch Hetchy Valley, failed. But that lost battle ultimately resulted in a widespread conviction that our national parks should be held inviolate. Many proposals to dam our national parks since that time have been stopped because of the efforts of citizens inspired by John Muir, and today there are legitimate proposals to restore Hetch Hetchy. John Muir remains today an inspiration for environmental activists everywhere.
Video about John Muir: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-CDzhIvugw8
Video about Rachael Carlson: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hDicpd4Ry8E
Environmental Laws and Treaties:
Atomic Energy Act (1954): Was passed because of the government's keen interest in monitoring the commercial and national defense uses of atomic energy. Government concerns included radiation hazards and the disposal of radioactive waste. The act establishes a general regulatory structure for construction and use of nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons facilities. Unlike most environmental statutes, it does not permit citizen suits and affords only limited opportunities for suits by public interest groups.
Clean Air Act (1970): Sets goals and standards for the quality and purity of air in the United States. By law, it is periodically reviewed. A significant set of amendments in 1990 toughened air quality standards and placed new emphasis on market forces to control air pollution.
Clean Water Act (1972): Establishes and maintains goals and standards for U.S. water quality and purity. It has been amended several times, most prominently in 1987 to increase controls on toxic pollutants, and in 1990, to more effectively address the hazard of oil spills.
Coastal Zone Management Act (1972): Provides a partnership structure allowing states and the federal government to work together for the protection of U.S. coastal zones from environmentally harmful overdevelopment. The program provides federal funding to participating coastal states and territories for the implementation of measures that conserve coastal areas.
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (1980): Requires the cleanup of sites contaminated with toxic waste. This law is commonly refered to as "Superfund." In 1986 major amendments were made in order to clarify the level of cleanup required and degrees of liability. CERCLA is retroactive, which means it can be used to hold liable those responsible for disposal of hazardous wastes before the law was enacted in 1980.
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (1986): Requires companies to disclose information about toxic chemicals they release into the air and water and dispose of on land.
Endangered Species Act (1973): Is designed to protect and recover endangered and threatened species of fish, wildlife and plants in the United States and beyond. The law works in part by protecting species habitats.
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (1938): Is the nation's major law regulating contaminants in food, including pesticides. The Food and Drug Administration implements most of this law; the Environmental Protection Agency carries out its pesticide standard setting provisions (with FDA enforcement). See also Food Quality Protection Act.
Federal Land Policy and Management Act (1976): Provides for protection of the scenic, scientific, historic and ecologic values of federal lands and for public involvement in their management.
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (1947): Controls the sale, distribution and application of pesticides; amended in 1972, 1988, and 1996. See also Food Quality Protection Act.
Food Quality Protection Act (1996): Is designed to ensure that levels of pesticide residues in food meet strict standards for public health protection. Under this law, which overhauled the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, the Environmental Protection Agency is required to better protect infants and children from pesticides in food and water and from indoor exposure to pesticides.
Fisheries Conservation and Management Act (1976): Governs the management and control of U.S. marine fish populations, and is intended to maintain and restore healthy levels of fish stocks and prevent overharvesting. Better known as the Magnuson Stevens Act.
Marine Mammal Protection Act (1972): Seeks to protect whales, dolphins, sea lions, seals, manatees and other species of marine mammals, many of which remain threatened or endangered. The law requires wildlife agencies to review any activity -- for example, the use of underwater explosives or high-intensity active sonar -- that has the potential to "harass" or kill these animals in the wild. The law is our nation's leading instrument for the conservation of these species, and is an international model for such laws.
National Environmental Policy Act (1970): Was the first of the modern environmental statutes. NEPA created environmental policies and goals for the country, and established the President's Council on Environmental Quality. Its most important feature is its requirement that federal agencies conduct thorough assessments of the environmental impacts of all major activities undertaken or funded by the federal government. Many states have enacted similar laws governing state activities.
Oil Pollution Act (1990): Enacted a year after the disastrous Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska's Prince William Sound, this law streamlines federal response to oil spills by requiring oil storage facilities and vessels to prepare spill-response plans and provide for their rapid implementation. The law also increases polluters' liability for cleanup costs and damage to natural resources and imposes measures -- including a phaseout of single-hulled tankers -- designed to improve tanker safety and prevent spills.
Proposition 65 (1986): Is a California law passed by voter initiative. Known as the Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act, Prop. 65 is designed to provide public warnings about the risk of exposure to toxic chemicals and to eliminate toxins from drinking water supplies. It is responsible for California having some of the strongest environmental protections in the nation, and thus has helped make the state a model for other regions seeking to address environmental hazards.
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976): Seeks to prevent the creation of toxic waste dumps by setting standards for the management of hazardous waste. Like CERCLA, this law also includes some provisions for cleanup of existing contaminated sites.
Safe Drinking Water Act (1974): Establishes drinking water standards for tap water safety, and requires rules for groundwater protection from underground injection; amended in 1986 and 1996. The 1996 amendments added a fund to pay for water system upgrades, revised standard: setting requirements, required new standards for common contaminants, and included public "right to know" requirements to inform consumers about their tap water.
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (1977): Is intended to ensure that coal mining activity is conducted with sufficient protections of the public and the environment, and provides for the restoration of abandoned mining areas to beneficial use.
Toxic Substances Control Act (1976): Authorizes the Environmental Protection Agency to regulate the manufacture, distribution, import and processing of certain toxic chemicals.
Sources:
<http://www.sierraclub.org/john_muir_exhibit/about/>
http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/nattrans/ntecoindian/essays/indcotoday.htm
http://www.goodhousekeeping.com/home/green-living/greenest-presidents-460808#slide-1
http://www.nrdc.org/reference/laws.asp
http://eco-issues.com/TheIndustrialRevolutionandItsImpactonOurEnvironment.html
Native Americans
Because the region’s climate offered a long growing season and generally plentiful rainfall, southern Indians developed a complex system of agriculture based primarily on three crops: corn, beans, and squash. To clear farmland, the natives used fire and stone axes to remove smaller brush and timber. They then stripped the bark (a process known as girdling) from larger trees so that they sprouted no leaves and eventually died. Native farmers (primarily women) then planted corn, beans, and squash together in hills beneath the dead and dying trees. By all accounts, the three crops, known in some cultures as “the three sisters,” usually did well under such conditions. Beans helped replace nitrogen taken from the soil by corn; cornstalks provided “poles” for the beans to climb; and broad-leaved squash plants helped cut down on weed growth and erosion.
Preparing new fields was hard work and rather than continually clearing new tracts in a “slash and burn” pattern, Indians probably used each plot as long as possible, even as yields declined. Old fields then had to lie fallow until they recovered some fertility and could be planted again. Hurricanes, thunderstorms, summer droughts, or prolonged spring rains could quickly lay waste to a season’s work in the fields. In addition, the natives had to store seeds, manage harvests, and distribute surplus crops, all of which required complex social and political organization. And, as several southeastern cultures seem to have discovered, a diet too rich in corn led to nutritional deficiencies and poor health. Thus, agriculture had to be blended proper proportion with hunting, fishing, and gathering wild foods in order to ensure survival.
European Settlers
For the most part, planters who raised cash crops engaged in monoculture, the practice of planting only a single crop per field. Tobacco, rice, and indigo—all of which are extremely demanding of soils—quickly exhausted colonial plots. Without the tangle of food plants typical of Indian gardens, English fields were also more subject to erosion and attracted insect pests such as grasshoppers, tobacco flea beetles, and rice worms. To colonists, monoculture appeared more “civilized,” but it was ecologically less sophisticated than the Indian system and therefore more subject to a greater variety of problems.
English colonists eventually found ways to turn trees into commodities, too. Lumber from live oaks became important to the shipbuilding industry. Barrel staves made from white oak helped sustain the international trade in molasses and rum. Bald cypress and Atlantic white cedar became the preferred woods for shingles and clapboard. By far, however, English people derived their greatest woodland profits from the South’s vast longleaf pine forest. Lumber from the trees could be used in ship construction and pinesap (known as resin) could be collected by cutting large rectangular notches or “boxes” into longleaf pines. The resin was then distilled into turpentine, tar, and pitch, products all used in the shipping industry and collectively known as naval stores. North Carolina, which—unlike South Carolina and Virginia—never developed a single-crop economy, led the southern colonies in the production of naval stores.
Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1700′s, and spread to the rest of the world, beginning with the United States. The use of machinery and factories led to mass production, which in turn led to the development of numerous environmental hazards. The effects on the environment would only be seen clearly years later.
The use of factories and mass production has led to a depletion of certain natural resources, leaving the environment permanently damaged. One example of this depletion is deforestation, which is the clearing of forest trees for use in production. When the trees are cleared, the wildlife in the forest also becomes uprooted.
The lack of trees is only compounded by the problem of carbon emissions. Whereas forests would help emit oxygen and refresh the levels of healthy gases in the air, factories are emitting poisonous emissions and eliminating the source of oxygen. The pollution that has resulted from factories involves not only airborne emissions but land and water pollution as well. The primary issue resulting from pollution and carbon emissions is that of global warming. As the temperature rises, the glaciers are melting and oceans are rising. More animal species are becoming endangered or extinct as a result of global warming.
The Green Presidents
Theodore Roosevelt- Theodore Roosevelt consistently lobbied Congress for wilderness protection, used the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 to set aside 150 million acres of timberland as public domains, and oversaw creation of the U.S. Forest Service. Roosevelt also created 50 wildlife refuges and five national parks
Jimmy Carter- President Jimmy Carter created the Department of Energy in 1977, with a key goal being the establishment of a national energy policy that promoted clean and alternative fuels. Carter famously installed solar panels on the White House roof and set the mansion's thermostats at 68 degrees to save energy.
Thomas Jefferson- Jefferson believed in respecting and working with nature, and envisioned a society of small farmers living in harmony with the environment.
Bill Clinton- He used executive orders to create 17 new national monuments, and expand four more, preserving more than 4.6 million acres, more than any other administration. Clinton also increased protection for wetlands and old-growth forests and finalized a sweeping rule that banned road building on nearly 60 million acres of wilderness in national forests. Clinton did secure more than $3 billion -- a 50% increase in annual funding -- to research and develop clean energy technologies. He also strengthened the Drinking Water Act, advanced cleanup of Superfund sites, and bolstered the EPA's ability to go after polluters.
Richard Nixon-Nixon signed the bills that established the Environmental Protection Agency and the landmark Clean Air Act. Going further, in 1972 Nixon signed the Coastal Zone Management Act; the Ocean Dumping Act; the Marine Mammal Protection Act; the Federal Insecticide, Fungide, Rodenticide Act; and the Toxic Substances Control Act. Nixon's term also saw passage of the Endangered Species Act in 1973 and the Safe Drinking Water Act in 1974
Franklin D Roosevelt- FDR created the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). Part of his New Deal, more than 2.5 million Americans planted millions of trees, opened summer camps, improved parks and trails, battled soil erosion and safeguarded other infrastructure and the environment. FDR's terms also saw creation of the Soil Conservation Service and the Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act. Soil began to be viewed as an invaluable, and largely non-renewable, resource, and measures were taken to promote long-term productivity and soil health.
Abraham Lincoln-Lincoln established California's spectacular Yosemite Valley and its Mariposa Grove of giant sequoias as a public trust, marking the first time land was set aside specifically for public enjoyment. In 1862 Lincoln established the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). In 1863 he authorized the establishment of the National Academy of Sciences, which would go on to lead the world in promoting and fostering innovation.
Lyndon B. Johnson-In 1964 the president signed the Wilderness Act, which was written by the Wilderness Society, and which protected more than 9 million acres of federal land. The Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964 provided matching grants for large-scale rail projects.
Woodrow Wilson- Wilson oversaw creation of the National Park Service in 1916, which has long been considered one of the great treasures of the nation. He also spearheaded the Smith-Lever Act of 1914, which established cooperative extension services through the land-grant universities to disseminate information on agriculture and other topics
John F Kennedy - John F. Kennedy was reportedly influenced by Rachel Carson's groundbreaking book Silent Spring. As a result the president established a committee to investigate the impacts of pesticides on health and the environment.
John Muir and Rachael CarlsonJohn Muir (1838-1914) was America's most famous and influential naturalist and conservationist. He is one of California's most important historical personalities. He has been called "The Father of our National Parks," "Wilderness Prophet," and "Citizen of the Universe." He once described himself more humorously, and perhaps most accurately, as, a "poetico-trampo-geologist-botanist and ornithologist-naturalist etc. etc. !!!!" Legendary librarian and author Lawrence Clark Powell (1906-2001), (anticipating an event that was not to occur until 2006), said of him: "If I were to choose a single Californian to occupy the Hall of Fame, it would be this tenacious Scot who became a Californian during the final forty-six years of his life." More recently, famed documentary film maker Ken Burns said, "As we got to know him... he [John Muir] ascended to the pantheon of the highest individuals in our country; I'm talking about the level of Abraham Lincoln, and Martin Luther King, and Thomas Jefferson, and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Jackie Robinson -- people who have had a transformational effect on who we are."
As a wilderness explorer, he is renowned for his exciting adventures in California's Sierra Nevada, among Alaska's glaciers, and world wide travels in search of nature's beauty. As a writer, he taught the people of his time and ours the importance of experiencing and protecting our natural heritage. His writings contributed greatly to the creation of Yosemite, Sequoia, Mount Rainier, Petrified Forest, and Grand Canyon National Parks. Dozens of places are named after John Muir, including the Muir Woods National Monument, the John Muir Trail, Muir College (UCSD), and many schools.
His words and deeds helped inspire President Theodore Roosevelt's innovative conservation programs, including establishing the first National Monuments by Presidential Proclamation, and Yosemite National Park by congressional action. In 1892, John Muir and other supporters formed the Sierra Club "to make the mountains glad." John Muir was the Club's first president, an office he held until his death in 1914. Muir's Sierra Club has gone on to help establish a series of new National Parks and a National Wilderness Preservation System.
Muir's last battle to save the second Yosemite, Hetch Hetchy Valley, failed. But that lost battle ultimately resulted in a widespread conviction that our national parks should be held inviolate. Many proposals to dam our national parks since that time have been stopped because of the efforts of citizens inspired by John Muir, and today there are legitimate proposals to restore Hetch Hetchy. John Muir remains today an inspiration for environmental activists everywhere.
Video about John Muir: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-CDzhIvugw8
Video about Rachael Carlson: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hDicpd4Ry8E
Environmental Laws and Treaties:
Atomic Energy Act (1954): Was passed because of the government's keen interest in monitoring the commercial and national defense uses of atomic energy. Government concerns included radiation hazards and the disposal of radioactive waste. The act establishes a general regulatory structure for construction and use of nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons facilities. Unlike most environmental statutes, it does not permit citizen suits and affords only limited opportunities for suits by public interest groups.
Clean Air Act (1970): Sets goals and standards for the quality and purity of air in the United States. By law, it is periodically reviewed. A significant set of amendments in 1990 toughened air quality standards and placed new emphasis on market forces to control air pollution.
Clean Water Act (1972): Establishes and maintains goals and standards for U.S. water quality and purity. It has been amended several times, most prominently in 1987 to increase controls on toxic pollutants, and in 1990, to more effectively address the hazard of oil spills.
Coastal Zone Management Act (1972): Provides a partnership structure allowing states and the federal government to work together for the protection of U.S. coastal zones from environmentally harmful overdevelopment. The program provides federal funding to participating coastal states and territories for the implementation of measures that conserve coastal areas.
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (1980): Requires the cleanup of sites contaminated with toxic waste. This law is commonly refered to as "Superfund." In 1986 major amendments were made in order to clarify the level of cleanup required and degrees of liability. CERCLA is retroactive, which means it can be used to hold liable those responsible for disposal of hazardous wastes before the law was enacted in 1980.
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (1986): Requires companies to disclose information about toxic chemicals they release into the air and water and dispose of on land.
Endangered Species Act (1973): Is designed to protect and recover endangered and threatened species of fish, wildlife and plants in the United States and beyond. The law works in part by protecting species habitats.
Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (1938): Is the nation's major law regulating contaminants in food, including pesticides. The Food and Drug Administration implements most of this law; the Environmental Protection Agency carries out its pesticide standard setting provisions (with FDA enforcement). See also Food Quality Protection Act.
Federal Land Policy and Management Act (1976): Provides for protection of the scenic, scientific, historic and ecologic values of federal lands and for public involvement in their management.
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (1947): Controls the sale, distribution and application of pesticides; amended in 1972, 1988, and 1996. See also Food Quality Protection Act.
Food Quality Protection Act (1996): Is designed to ensure that levels of pesticide residues in food meet strict standards for public health protection. Under this law, which overhauled the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, the Environmental Protection Agency is required to better protect infants and children from pesticides in food and water and from indoor exposure to pesticides.
Fisheries Conservation and Management Act (1976): Governs the management and control of U.S. marine fish populations, and is intended to maintain and restore healthy levels of fish stocks and prevent overharvesting. Better known as the Magnuson Stevens Act.
Marine Mammal Protection Act (1972): Seeks to protect whales, dolphins, sea lions, seals, manatees and other species of marine mammals, many of which remain threatened or endangered. The law requires wildlife agencies to review any activity -- for example, the use of underwater explosives or high-intensity active sonar -- that has the potential to "harass" or kill these animals in the wild. The law is our nation's leading instrument for the conservation of these species, and is an international model for such laws.
National Environmental Policy Act (1970): Was the first of the modern environmental statutes. NEPA created environmental policies and goals for the country, and established the President's Council on Environmental Quality. Its most important feature is its requirement that federal agencies conduct thorough assessments of the environmental impacts of all major activities undertaken or funded by the federal government. Many states have enacted similar laws governing state activities.
Oil Pollution Act (1990): Enacted a year after the disastrous Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska's Prince William Sound, this law streamlines federal response to oil spills by requiring oil storage facilities and vessels to prepare spill-response plans and provide for their rapid implementation. The law also increases polluters' liability for cleanup costs and damage to natural resources and imposes measures -- including a phaseout of single-hulled tankers -- designed to improve tanker safety and prevent spills.
Proposition 65 (1986): Is a California law passed by voter initiative. Known as the Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act, Prop. 65 is designed to provide public warnings about the risk of exposure to toxic chemicals and to eliminate toxins from drinking water supplies. It is responsible for California having some of the strongest environmental protections in the nation, and thus has helped make the state a model for other regions seeking to address environmental hazards.
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976): Seeks to prevent the creation of toxic waste dumps by setting standards for the management of hazardous waste. Like CERCLA, this law also includes some provisions for cleanup of existing contaminated sites.
Safe Drinking Water Act (1974): Establishes drinking water standards for tap water safety, and requires rules for groundwater protection from underground injection; amended in 1986 and 1996. The 1996 amendments added a fund to pay for water system upgrades, revised standard: setting requirements, required new standards for common contaminants, and included public "right to know" requirements to inform consumers about their tap water.
Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (1977): Is intended to ensure that coal mining activity is conducted with sufficient protections of the public and the environment, and provides for the restoration of abandoned mining areas to beneficial use.
Toxic Substances Control Act (1976): Authorizes the Environmental Protection Agency to regulate the manufacture, distribution, import and processing of certain toxic chemicals.
Sources:
<http://www.sierraclub.org/john_muir_exhibit/about/>
http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/nattrans/ntecoindian/essays/indcotoday.htm
http://www.goodhousekeeping.com/home/green-living/greenest-presidents-460808#slide-1
http://www.nrdc.org/reference/laws.asp
http://eco-issues.com/TheIndustrialRevolutionandItsImpactonOurEnvironment.html